Imperative languages like C++, Python or JavaScript execute mostly linear code with some branching and subroutine calls. Their debuggers support stepping through the code and pausing on each line, or running the program until it hits a breakpoint and pauses. When paused, the user can inspect the current program state or give the debugger commands.
Prolog has a logical execution model that involves attempting to prove logical predicates and needs a different debugging approach. SWI-Prolog uses the traditional Prolog "Byrd Box Model" or "4 Port Model" debugging approach described by Byrd, 1980, Clocksin & Melish, 1987 with a couple of extensions to implement its command line debugger. There are two other debuggers available that build on this infrastructure: a graphical debugger and remote debugging in the web interface provided by SWISH.
Reference information to all predicates available for manipulating the debugger is in the debugger section (section 4.39).
Standard Prolog debugging tools are built around the so-called "Byrd Box Model" or "4 Port Model" which models each predicate in a Prolog program as a state machine ("box") that transitions through states ("ports") as a program is evaluated. The developer can ask the engine to pause for program inspection when it reaches specific ports or predicates.
As we go through this overview, remember that a "port" is just another word for a "state" in the state machine that each predicate transitions through during evaluation. The state machine is called a "box" because it is drawn like this:
*--------------------------------------*
Call | | Exit
---------> + descendant(X,Y) :- offspring(X,Y). + --------->
| |
| descendant(X,Z) :- |
<--------- + offspring(X,Y), descendant(Y,Z). + <---------
Fail | | Redo
*--------------------------------------*
The standard ports are: call, redo, exit
and fail. SWI-Prolog extends this with two more: unify
and exception. Each trace happens at a particular phase of
predicate resolution. Recall that when resolving or "proving" a
predicate, the Prolog engine:
call is traced, once, if any rules might match.redo is also traced when the engine backtracks to find
the next matching rule.
unify is traced with the results of unification if one
is found.fail is traced if no rule heads can be unified.
exit is traced if all of them succeeded (meaning this
rule is true).fail is traced if any of them failed (meaning this rule
is false).exception is traced if any of them threw an exception.
This means there can be a lot of traces between the initial call
and the end of tracing for a particular predicate.
The trace/0 predicate turns on "trace mode", which, by default, produces a trace and pauses at every port of every predicate to allow inspection of the state of the program. This is normally done from the Prolog console window, but for embedded Prolog systems or when Prolog runs as a daemon it can also be done by getting a prompt via the libssh package.
Note: If the native graphics plugin (XPCE) is available, the commands gtrace/0 and gspy/1 activate the graphical debugger while tdebug/0 and tspy/1 allow debugging of arbitrary threads.
Each goal is printed using the Prolog predicate write_term/2.
The style is defined by the Prolog flag debugger_write_options
and can be modified using this flag or using the w, p
and d commands of the tracer (section
2.10.4.3).
Here's an example debugging session that shows the basic flow. The
unify port is off by default since it doesn't add a lot of
information in most cases for the command line debugger.
is_a(rock1, rock). is_a(rock2, rock). color(rock1, red). noun(X, Type) :- is_a(X, Type). adjective(X, color, Value) :- color(X, Value).
?- trace. true. [trace] ?- noun(X, rock), adjective(X, color, red). Call: (11) noun(_9774, rock) ? creep
The trace/0
predicate turned on trace mode, which is now indicated at every prompt
by [trace] ?-. The initial query provided by the user was
noun(X, rock), adjective(X, color, red) which is asking to
find a "red rock". Finally: the first port triggered was a Call
to the first predicate in the initial query, indicating the engine is
about to look for the first rule that matches noun(_9774, rock).
Pressing spacebar, c, or enter
caused the tracer to print creep followed by the next
trace. There are many additional commands available that are described
later in the overview.
is_a(rock1, rock). is_a(rock2, rock). color(rock1, red). noun(X, Type) :- is_a(X, Type). adjective(X, color, Value) :- color(X, Value).
[trace] ?- noun(X, rock), adjective(X, color, red). ... Call: (12) is_a(_9774, rock) ? creep Exit: (12) is_a(rock1, rock) ? creep Exit: (11) noun(rock1, rock) ? creep ...
Next, the first clause of noun/2 gets a call trace since
the engine is trying to find the next rule that matches is_a(_9774, rock).
Since there is a fact that can unify: is_a(rock1, rock),
the trace shows exit (i.e. succeeded) along with that
value. Since that was the final predicate in the body of noun/2 , noun/2
also gets an
exit trace that shows the unified value of its head:
noun(rock1, rock).
is_a(rock1, rock). is_a(rock2, rock). color(rock1, red). noun(X, Type) :- is_a(X, Type). adjective(X, color, Value) :- color(X, Value).
[trace] ?- noun(X, rock), adjective(X, color, red). ... Call: (11) adjective(rock1, color, red) ? creep Call: (12) color(rock1, red) ? creep Exit: (12) color(rock1, red) ? creep Exit: (11) adjective(rock1, color, red) ? creep X = rock1 ; ...
Prolog then moved to the next predicate in the initial query:
adjective/3 and solved it in a similar way. Since that was the last
predicate in the query, an answer was returned. Pressing ;
requested the next answer and began Prolog backtracking.
is_a(rock1, rock). is_a(rock2, rock). color(rock1, red). noun(X, Type) :- is_a(X, Type). adjective(X, color, Value) :- color(X, Value).
[trace] ?- noun(X, rock), adjective(X, color, red). ... Redo: (12) is_a(_9774, rock) ? creep Exit: (12) is_a(rock2, rock) ? creep Exit: (11) noun(rock2, rock) ? creep Call: (11) adjective(rock2, color, red) ? creep Call: (12) color(rock2, red) ? creep Fail: (12) color(rock2, red) ? creep Fail: (11) adjective(rock2, color, red) ? creep false.
The only choice point to redo (i.e. backtrack over) was
the is_a/2 clause of noun/2 since there was one potential match left to
attempt to unify: is_a(rock2, rock). This succeeds with an exit
trace since it does unify with the redo predicate and
causes noun(rock2, rock) to also succeed with exit
just as above.
As the traces continue, you can see the fail port get
activated for
color(rock2, red) since there is no way to prove that
predicate and thus the whole query returns false.
Tracing will continue for every query you pose until you enter
notrace. to turn off trace mode.
When you enable trace mode with trace/0, the tracer will, by default, pause and wait for a command at every port it hits on every predicate. The leash/1 predicate can be used to modify the ports to pause at. This is a global setting, so changes will remain until they are changed again or SWI-Prolog is restarted. Disabling the tracer via notrace/0 doesn't affect which ports are leashed.
The leash/1 argument
must start with + to add, or - to remove,
followed by the name of a port such as call, exit,
etc. There are special terms like all which can be used
instead of manually adding or removing every port.
To stop only at the fail port, use leash/1 like this:
?- leash(-all). true. ?- leash(+fail). true. ?- trace. true. [trace] ?- noun(X, rock), adjective(X, color, red). Call: (11) noun(_3794, rock) Call: (12) is_a(_3794, rock) Exit: (12) is_a(rock1, rock) Exit: (11) noun(rock1, rock) Call: (11) adjective(rock1, color, red) Call: (12) color(rock1, red) Exit: (12) color(rock1, red) Exit: (11) adjective(rock1, color, red) X = rock1 ; Redo: (12) is_a(_3794, rock) Exit: (12) is_a(rock2, rock) Exit: (11) noun(rock2, rock) Call: (11) adjective(rock2, color, red) Call: (12) color(rock2, red) Fail: (12) color(rock2, red) ? creep Fail: (11) adjective(rock2, color, red) ? creep false.
Now, only the lines that start with "Fail:" have "creep" after them
because that was the only time the tracer paused for a command. To never
pause and just see all the traces, use leash(-all) and
don't turn any ports back on.
The default ports are still printed out because a different setting,
visible/1, controls
which ports are printed. visible/1
takes the same form of argument as leash/1.
To only stop and show the fail port, use
leash/1 and visible/1
like this:
?- leash(-all). true. ?- leash(+fail). true. ?- visible(-all). true. ?- visible(+fail). true. ?- trace. true. [trace] ?- noun(X, rock), adjective(X, color, red). X = rock1 ; Fail: (12) color(rock2, red) ? creep Fail: (11) adjective(rock2, color, red) ? creep false.
You can do way more than just press spacebar when the
tracer is paused at a port. All actions are single-character commands
which are executed
without waiting for a return (unless the command line option
--no-tty is active). Pressing ? or h
when paused will print out a list of these commands as well.
Abort a Abort Prolog execution (see abort/0) Break b Enter a Prolog break environment (see break/0) Creep c Continue execution, stop at next port. (Also return,space)Exit e Terminate Prolog (see halt/0) Fail f Force failure of the current goal Find / Search for a port (see below for the description of this command (section 2.10.4.1)) Ignore i Ignore the current goal, pretending it succeeded Leap l Continue execution, stop at next spy point No debug n Continue execution in’no debug’mode Repeat find . Repeat the last find command (see’Find’(section 2.10.4.1)) Retry r Undo all actions (except for database and I/O actions) back to the callport of the current goal and resume execution at thecallportSkip s Continue execution, stop at the next port of this goal (thus skipping all calls to children of this goal) Spy + Set a spy point (see spy/1) on the current predicate. Spy points are described later in the overview (section 2.10.6). No spy - Remove the spy point (see nospy/1) from the current predicate. Spy points are described later in the overview (section 2.10.6). Up u Continue execution, stop at the next port of the parent goal (thus skipping this goal and all calls to children of this goal). This option is useful to stop tracing a failure driven loop.
Find (/
The Find (/) command continues execution until a port
matching a find pattern is found. After the /, the user can
enter a line to specify the port to search for. This line consists of a
set of letters indicating the port type, followed by an optional term,
that should unify with the goal run by the port. If no term is specified
it is taken as a variable, searching for any port of the specified type.
If an atom is given, any goal whose functor has a name equal to that
atom matches. Examples:
/f Search for any failport/fe solve Search for a failorexitport of any goal with namesolve/c solve(a, _)Search for a call to solve/2 whose first argument is a variable or the atom a/a member(_, _)Search for any port on member/2. This is equivalent to setting a spy point on member/2.
Alternatives A Show all goals that have alternatives Goals g Show the list of parent goals (the execution stack). Note that due to tail recursion optimization a number of parent goals might not exist any more. Help h Show available options (also ?)Listing L List the current predicate with listing/1
Context C Toggle’Show Context’. If on, the context module of the goal is displayed between square brackets (see modules section (section 6)). Default isoff.Display d Set the max_depth(Depth)option of debugger_write_options (section 2.12), limiting the depth to which terms are printed. See also thewandpoptions.p Set the Prolog flag debugger_write_options to [quoted(true), portray(true), max_depth(10), priority(699)]. This is the default.Write w Set the Prolog flag debugger_write_options to [quoted(true), attributes(write), priority(699)], bypassing portray/1, etc.
A slight detour is useful to describe some related predicates that
can be confusing: To only trace a single or select set of predicates,
the
trace/1 or trace/2
predicates can be used to set a trace point. Even though they use
the same base predicate name trace, these predicates ignore
the leash/1 and visible/1
global settings and don't pause when they trace a port. They really are
a different feature that also happens to do tracing.
A trace point is set on a particular predicate and traces the ports of that predicate whether or not you are in trace/0 trace mode. Each trace point can trace different ports if the trace/2 variant is used.
?- trace(is_a/2). % is_a/2: [all] true. ?- noun(X, rock), adjective(X, color, red). T Call: is_a(_25702, rock) T Exit: is_a(rock1, rock) X = rock1 ; T Redo: is_a(rock1, rock) T Exit: is_a(rock2, rock) false.
Notice that trace mode did not have to be turned on using trace/0 and that this only traced out the ports hit while executing is_a/2 and that the program was not ever paused.
In fact, if trace mode is turned on while using a trace point, things get very confusing because the trace point infrastructure itself will be traced!
?- trace(is_a/2). % is_a/2: [all] true. ?- trace. true. [trace] ?- noun(X, rock), adjective(X, color, red). Call: (11) noun(_29318, rock) ? creep Call: (12) is_a(_29318, rock) ? creep Call: (13) print_message(debug, frame(user:is_a(_29318, rock), trace(call))) ? creep Call: (18) push_msg(frame(user:is_a(_29318, rock), trace(call))) ? creep Call: (21) exception(undefined_global_variable, '$inprint_message', _30046) ? creep Fail: (21) exception(undefined_global_variable, '$inprint_message', _30090) ? creep Exit: (18) push_msg(frame(user:is_a(_29318, rock), trace(call))) ? creep Call: (19) prolog:message(frame(user:is_a(_29318, rock), trace(call)), _30140, _30142) ? creep Fail: (19) prolog:message(frame(user:is_a(_29318, rock), trace(call)), _30140, _30142) ? creep Call: (19) message_property(debug, stream(_30192)) ? creep Fail: (19) message_property(debug, stream(_30192)) ? creep Call: (20) message_property(debug, prefix(_30200)) ? creep Fail: (20) message_property(debug, prefix(_30200)) ? creep T Call: is_a(_29318, rock) Call: (17) pop_msg ? creep Exit: (17) pop_msg ? creep ...Lots more after this...
So, trace points are a confusingly named and separate feature from trace mode.
Back to trace mode features: Because the tracing output of a Prolog program can often be quite large, sometimes it is useful to start trace mode at a particular point deep in the program. This is what a spy point is for. It specifies a predicate that should turn on trace mode.
A spy point is enabled like this: spy(mypredicate/2).
After that command, the first time mypredicate/2 is encountered, trace
mode will turn on and work just like it does normally. This includes
paying attention to the global leash/1
and visible/1
settings. The spy point can be removed using nospy/1
or nospyall/0.
is_a(rock1, rock). is_a(rock2, rock). color(rock1, red). noun(X, Type) :- is_a(X, Type). adjective(X, color, Value) :- color(X, Value).
?- spy(is_a/2). % Spy point on is_a/2 true. [debug] ?- noun(X, rock), adjective(X, color, red). * Call: (12) is_a(_1858, rock) ? creep * Exit: (12) is_a(rock1, rock) ? creep Exit: (11) noun(rock1, rock) ? creep Call: (11) adjective(rock1, color, red) ? creep Call: (12) color(rock1, red) ? creep Exit: (12) color(rock1, red) ? creep Exit: (11) adjective(rock1, color, red) ? creep X = rock1 ; * Redo: (12) is_a(_1858, rock) ? creep * Exit: (12) is_a(rock2, rock) ? creep Exit: (11) noun(rock2, rock) ? creep Call: (11) adjective(rock2, color, red) ? creep Call: (12) color(rock2, red) ? creep Fail: (12) color(rock2, red) ? creep Fail: (11) adjective(rock2, color, red) ? creep false.
After the spy point is hit, the output above is identical to the traces generated by running trace/0 with the initial query, but is obviously missing all of the traces before the spy point.
Note that after spy/1
is called, there is a new tag in front of ?-, the [debug]
tag:
?- spy(is_a/2). % Spy point on is_a/2 true. [debug] ?-
This means the system is in "debug mode". Debug mode does two things: it tells the system to watch for spy points and it turns off some optimizations that would make the traces confusing. The ideal 4-port model (Byrd, 1980) as described in many Prolog books (Clocksin & Melish, 1987) is not visible in many Prolog implementations because code optimisation removes part of the choice and exit points. Backtrack points are not shown if either the goal succeeded deterministically or its alternatives were removed using the cut. When running in debug mode, choice points are only destroyed when removed by the cut and last call optimisation is switched off. [Note: This implies the system can run out of stack in debug mode, while no problems arise when running in non-debug mode.]
Debug mode can be turned off again using nodebug/0, but then the spy point will be ignored (but remembered). Turning debug mode back on via debug/0 will hit the spy point again.
is_a(rock1, rock). is_a(rock2, rock). color(rock1, red). noun(X, Type) :- is_a(X, Type). adjective(X, color, Value) :- color(X, Value).
?- spy(is_a/2). % Spy point on is_a/2 true. [debug] ?- nodebug. true. ?- noun(X, rock). X = rock1 ; X = rock2. ?- debug. true. [debug] ?- noun(X, rock). * Call: (11) is_a(_47826, rock) ? creep * Exit: (11) is_a(rock1, rock) ? creep Exit: (10) noun(rock1, rock) ? creep X = rock1 ; * Redo: (11) is_a(_47826, rock) ? creep * Exit: (11) is_a(rock2, rock) ? creep Exit: (10) noun(rock2, rock) ? creep X = rock2.
So, debug mode allows Prolog to watch for spy points and enable trace mode when it hits one. The tracing/0 and debugging/0 predicates will report if the system is in either of those modes.
Sometimes even spy points aren't enough. There may be a predicate that is used in many different places and it would be helpful to turn on tracing mode only when one particular call to it is made. Breakpoints allow for turning on trace mode when a specific source file, line number, and character in that line are hit. The predicates used are set_breakpoint/4 and set_breakpoint/5. Many breakpoints can be active at a time.
Note that the interface provided by these predicates is not intended for end-users. The built-in PceEmacs editor that is also embedded in the graphical debugger allow setting break points based on the cursor position.
Example.pl has now been modified to have multiple calls
to noun/2 :
is_a(rock1, rock). is_a(rock2, rock). color(rock1, red). noun(X, Type) :- is_a(X, Type). adjective(X, color, Value) :- color(X, Value). test_noun1(X, Type) :- noun(X, Type). test_noun2(X, Type) :- noun(X, Type).
To enable tracing just when noun/2 is called from test_noun2/2 , set_breakpoint/4 can be used like this:
?- set_breakpoint('/...path.../Example.pl', 8, 24, ID).
% Breakpoint 1 in 1-st clause of test_noun2/2 at Example.pl:8
ID = 1.
?- debug.
true.
[debug] ?- noun(X, rock).
X = rock1 .
[debug] ?- test_noun1(X, rock).
X = rock1 .
[debug] ?- test_noun2(X, rock).
Call: (11) noun(_44982, rock) ? creep
Call: (12) is_a(_44982, rock) ? creep
Exit: (12) is_a(rock1, rock) ? creep
Exit: (11) noun(rock1, rock) ? creep
Exit: (10) test_noun2(rock1, rock) ? creep
X = rock1 .
[trace] ?- notrace.
true.
[debug] ?-
The call to set_breakpoint/4 had to
specify the source file ("Example.pl"), the line number
(8), and the character within that line (24) to precisely specify what
clause should turn on trace mode (this is much easier using the
graphical debugger because it shows source code).
The breakpoint won't get triggered if the system isn't in debug mode but, unlike setting a spy point, set_breakpoint/4 does not do this automatically. So, it was turned on manually using debug/0.
The output shows that only the call to test_noun2/2 (where the
breakpoint was set) actually turned on trace mode. Note that the
[Trace] ?- at the end shows that trace mode is left on
after being triggered. It can be turned off again via notrace/0,
which will leave the system in debug mode. All debugging modes can be
shut off at once by calling nodebug/0
since shutting off debug mode automatically turns off trace mode.
In addition, SWI-Prolog supports attaching an arbitrary goal to each breakpoint via set_breakpoint_condition/2, which yields Conditional Breakpoints. A conditional breakpoint is the same as the regular breakpoints discussed thus far, except that whenever the breakpoint is triggered, the given goal is invoked and trace mode is only turned on in case it succeeds.
To enable tracing just when noun/2 is called from test_noun2/2 with rock2
as the first argument, set_breakpoint_condition/2
can be used like below. Note that the condition is a Prolog string that
is parsed to obtain the goal as well as the variable names. The
resulting goal is called in the module in which the clause body is
executed (see
clause_property/2,
property module).
?- set_breakpoint('/...path.../Example.pl', 8, 24, ID).
ID = 1.
?- set_breakpoint_condition(1, "X == rock2").
true.
?- debug.
true.
[debug] ?- test_noun2(X, rock).
X = rock1 ;
X = rock2.
[debug] ?- test_noun2(rock2, rock).
Call: (11) noun(rock2, rock) ? creep
Call: (12) is_a(rock2, rock) ? creep
Exit: (12) is_a(rock2, rock) ? creep
Exit: (11) noun(rock2, rock) ? creep
Exit: (10) test_noun2(rock2, rock) ? creep
true.
[trace] ?-
In summary, there are really two distinct "tracing" features: trace mode and trace points. Both write traces to the console using the "Byrd Box Model" but that's where similarity ends.
Trace mode is the main Prolog command line debugger that allows for tracing the transitions through the resolution states of predicates represented by ports in the "Byrd Box Model" and optionally pausing for a command when certain ports are hit.
It can be turned on manually via trace/0, or (when put into debug mode using debug/0) when a specific predicate is encountered via spy/1, or when a specific call to a predicate is encountered via set_breakpoint/4 or set_breakpoint/5.
When in trace mode, visible/1 controls which ports are written to the console, and leash/1 controls which ports cause execution to pause to allow program inspection.
When execution is paused, there are many commands that can be used to inspect the state of the program, cause goals to fail or succeed, etc.
Trace mode is turned off via notrace/0 and debug mode is turned off via nodebug/0.
Trace points are a separate feature from trace mode that allow writing specified ports to the console when a predicate is being evaluated. It does not ever pause program execution and does not need to be in trace or debug mode to work.
They are turned on via trace/1 and trace/2.
They don't pay attention to visible/1 (because the ports shown are set in trace/2) or leash/1 (because they don't pause execution).
They can be turned off via trace/2.